This seminal work of ancient Greek philosophy explores fundamental questions about justice, the ideal state, and the nature of reality through engaging dialogues featuring Socrates. It lays the groundwork for political philosophy, ethics, and metaphysics.

  

A cornerstone of modern Western philosophy, Descartes’ Meditations delves into the nature of knowledge, doubt, and the existence of the self. His famous “Cogito, ergo sum” (“I think, therefore I am”) is a pivotal point in understanding consciousness and epistemology.

  

A clear and accessible introduction to the core questions of philosophy, such as the nature of knowledge, reality, truth, and the limits of human understanding. Russell’s concise writing makes complex ideas approachable for beginners.

  

This influential work is a powerful defense of individual freedoms, including freedom of thought, expression, and lifestyle. It argues for the importance of individual autonomy and limited government intervention, shaping liberal political thought.

  

Camus grapples with the philosophy of absurdism, exploring the conflict between humanity’s search for meaning and the universe’s indifference. He encourages finding value in rebellion, freedom, and passionate engagement with life despite its inherent meaninglessness.

  

A foundational text in feminist philosophy, analyzing the historical and social construction of women’s oppression and the concept of “otherness.” De Beauvoir’s work is crucial for understanding the development of feminist thought and gender studies.

  

Critiquing traditional morality and metaphysics, introducing concepts like the will to power, the Übermensch, and perspectivism, which have profoundly influenced subsequent philosophical thought, particularly in existentialism and postmodernism.

  

A collection of sayings and ideas attributed to the Chinese philosopher Confucius, focusing on ethics, social harmony, filial piety, and good governance, providing a foundational understanding of East Asian philosophical traditions and their emphasis on social order and moral cultivation.