A foundational text that establishes sociology as a distinct scientific discipline. Durkheim introduces key concepts like “social facts” – external forces that shape individual behavior – and emphasizes the importance of studying social phenomena systematically.

  

This highly influential work provides a critical analysis of capitalism, social class, and historical change. It outlines the theory of class struggle and the eventual overthrow of the bourgeoisie by the proletariat, profoundly impacting social and political thought.

  

This book encourages readers to develop a “sociological imagination,” the ability to connect personal troubles with broader public issues and to understand the social forces that shape individual lives and society as a whole.

  

Weber’s seminal work explores the complex relationship between religious beliefs (specifically Calvinism) and the rise of modern capitalism. He argues that certain Protestant values fostered the development of a rationalized, work-oriented ethos conducive to capitalist accumulation.

  

Bourdieu’s work uniquely bridges the gap between macro-level social structures (like class) and micro-level individual actions and experiences. His concepts of habitus (internalized dispositions and ways of acting), field (social arenas with their own rules and power dynamics), and capital (economic, social, cultural, and symbolic resources) provide a powerful framework for understanding how social inequalities are reproduced and experienced in everyday life.

  

A foundational text in African American sociology, exploring the experience of racial identity, the concept of “double consciousness” – the feeling of looking at oneself through the eyes of a racially prejudiced white society – and the social, political, and economic realities of being Black in America at the turn of the 20th century.

  

Analyzing the historical transformation of punishment and social control, revealing the intricate connections between power, knowledge, and the shaping of individuals through institutions like prisons, schools, and hospitals, and introducing concepts like the panopticon and biopower.

  

A crucial contribution to feminist theory and sociology, offering a framework for understanding the unique experiences and perspectives of Black women and challenging traditional power structures by centering marginalized voices and developing intersectional analyses of race, gender, and class.